Critical Minerals for the Energy Transition

## The Mineral Intensity Problem

The transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy requires vastly more minerals per unit of energy produced. A single electric vehicle contains six times more minerals than a conventional car. A wind farm needs nine times more minerals per megawatt than a gas-fired plant.

## Key Critical Minerals

### Battery Minerals

| Mineral | Formula | Mohs | Crystal System | Use | Top Producer |
|---------|---------|------|----------------|-----|-------------|
| Spodumene | LiAlSi₂O₆ | 6.5–7 | Monoclinic | Lithium source | Australia |
| Lepidolite | K(Li,Al)₃(AlSi)₄O₁₀(OH,F)₂ | 2.5–3.5 | Monoclinic | Lithium source | Brazil, Zimbabwe |
| Cobaltite | CoAsS | 5.5 | Orthorhombic | Cobalt for cathodes | DR Congo (70%) |
| Pyrolusite | MnO₂ | 2–6.5 | Tetragonal | Manganese cathodes | South Africa, Gabon |
| Graphite | C | 1–2 | Hexagonal | Battery anodes | China (65%) |
| Pentlandite | (Fe,Ni)₉S₈ | 3.5–4 | Cubic | Nickel for cathodes | Indonesia, Philippines |

### Wind and Solar Minerals

| Mineral | Element | Use |
|---------|---------|-----|
| Bastnäsite | Ce, La, Nd, Pr | Neodymium magnets in wind turbines |
| Monazite | Ce, La, Nd, Pr | Alternative rare earth source |
| Quartz | Si | Solar cell silicon wafers |
| Galena | Pb | Lead-acid storage batteries |
| Chalcopyrite | Cu | Wiring (5× more copper per MW than fossil) |

### Hydrogen Economy

| Mineral | Element | Use in H₂ Economy |
|---------|---------|-------------------|
| Platinum group minerals | Pt, Ir | Electrolyzer catalysts |
| Rutile | Ti | Electrolyzer components |
| Zirconia | Zr | Solid oxide fuel cells |

## Supply Chain Vulnerabilities

| Element | Concentration Risk | Why It Matters |
|---------|-------------------|----------------|
| Cobalt | 70% from DR Congo | Ethical concerns, supply risk |
| Rare earths | 60% from China | Processing monopoly |
| Lithium | 85% from 3 countries (AUS/CHL/CHN) | Demand growing 40%/year |
| Graphite | 65% from China | Anode material monopoly |
| Nickel | Indonesia dominant and growing | Environmental concerns |

## Demand Projections (IEA, 2030)

| Mineral | 2023 Demand | 2030 Projected | Growth |
|---------|------------|----------------|--------|
| Lithium | 130 kt | 580 kt | 4.5× |
| Cobalt | 190 kt | 380 kt | 2× |
| Nickel (battery) | 300 kt | 850 kt | 2.8× |
| Rare earths (magnets) | 45 kt | 95 kt | 2.1× |
| Copper (clean energy) | 6 Mt | 12 Mt | 2× |

## Recycling as "Urban Mining"

Recycling lithium-ion batteries can recover 95%+ of cobalt, nickel, and copper. As battery volumes grow, recycled minerals will become an increasingly important supply source, reducing dependence on primary mining.